EVOLUTION OF MAN
Have you ever wondered where people, animals and no-living things in the world come from? Human beings have always tried to explain their origin. Different societies have different views on how they came to be.
There are two major theories that try to explain the origin of man. These are theory of creation and the theory of evolution. In this unit we will study theories on how man came to be, concentrating especially on the scientific theories of evolution.
Theory of creation
According to this theory, man was made by God. Jews, Christians and Muslims believe the creation stories told in the Torah, Bible and Quran, respectively. Many African societies also have creation stories passed on through oral traditions.
In this theory, God created the whole universe. This includes plants, animals, and non-living things. God created the first people. Those people reproduced and their descendants dispersed to all parts of the earth. Therefore, all the people in the world came from those first parents. God put human beings in charge of the rest of his creation.
Theory of evolution
Evolution is the gradual development of plants and animals from a simple form to a more complex form. It leads to the existence of plants and animals that are different from the original plants and animals. The theory of evolution tries to explain the origin of man by describing the changes that our ancestors underwent until they were like modern man
The theory of evolution was introduced by the scientist called Charles Darwin. His work was based on his observation of living organisms and remaining of living organism in South America and the Pacific islands. In 1859, Darwin wrote a book called the origin of species. In this book, he said that the plants and animals that exist today evolved from simple living cells. This process occurred in many stages and took million of years.
The following are the important points of the theory:
1. The rate at which organisms reproduce can increase their number more than twice within each generation. For example, two parents can have more than ten young ones.
2. The total number of wild organisms remains constant.
3. There must be something that limits the number of wild organisms. This is called struggle for survival. There are many organisms competing for a few resources such as food, so many of the young organisms die before they can reproduce. This is called natural selection.
4. There are variations or differences in each group of organisms. For example, there are tall and short people, and there are black, white and brown cattle.
5. Young organisms inherit some features or characteristics from their parents.
6. Adaptations enable organism to survive and reproduce. Lack of these adaptations causes an organism to die early. This is called survival for the fittest.
7. Through inheritance, adaptations are passed on from the parents to their offspring.
8. After a long time, the organisms that are different from the original ones are seen due to natural selection and inheritance.
This theory is greatly supported by scientists. The use of fossils to prove that evolution took place. Fossils are remains of living things from long ago.
Fossils of man’s ancestors have been found in many places. Some of the sites in East Africa are
· Olduvai Gorge, Kondoa, Ismila and the shores of Lake Eyasi in Tanzania.
· Olorgesaille, Rusinga Island, Fort Ternan and Kariandusi in Kenya.
· Nsongezi, Paraa, Ishanga, Lolui, Ntusi and Bigo in Uganda.
Evolution of man
According to the scientists, the first living thing appeared on the earth hundreds of millions years ago. These organisms were single-celled microscopic organisms that lived in water.
These organisms evolved into the early fish and amphibians. These creatures lived in water. At that time, water bodies were bigger than they are now, so more of the earth was covered by water.
Due to climatic changes, the water bodies began to dry up and reduce in size. Many of the organisms died. Some of those remained adapted to living on land. They were the early reptiles. Dinosaurs evolved from these reptiles. Scientist believed that mammals, including man, evolved from small reptiles.
The early mammals lived in trees. At that time there were many large forests. The mammals easily got food such as fruits, honey, eggs, leaves and insects in the forests. The forests also provided protection from some of their enemies. These mammals used their four limbs and tails to hold branches and move in the trees.
Further climatic changes led to the reduction of the forests and the increase of grassland. As a result, mammals had to evolve in order to survive in the new environment. For example, man’s ancestor no longer had tails because they were unnecessary in the grassland. Also, they began to walk on two legs is called bipedalism. This mode of movement made it easier to see over the tall grass. In addition, the arms were free to be used for defense, making tools and hunting. An upright position helped to cool the body as well because less of the body surfaces were exposed to the sun.
Fossil evidence show that
1. The skulls of man’s ancestors gradually became bigger until they reached their current size. This indicates that their brains became bigger and they became more intelligent.
2. The jaws and teeth changed in shape and size. Early man had large jaws and teeth for tearing and cutting roots and tough fibers. These teeth were also used as weapons against enemies.
3. Man’s forearms and hands became shorter and more suitable for his upright posture. His thumb changed as well. It became stronger and more separated from the other four fingers.
4. Man’s feet and toes became shorter, because he did not need them to hold onto tree branches. Also the shape of his feet changed in order to maintain body balance when standing or moving.
Man is believed to have undergone the following stages during evolution. Scientists use fossils from various sites to explain what man’s ancestor were like at each stage.
Australopithecus
The word Australopithecus means “southern ape-man”. Australopithecus is believed to have lived around four million years ago. Fossils have been found in Olduvai Gorge, Laetoli and near Lake Natron in Tanzania; near lake Baringo and Turkana in Kenya; Omo river valley and Hadar in Ethiopia; and Taung in Botswana.
Several Australopithecus have been discovered, including Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus afarensis, Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus robustus and Australopithecus boisei.
Physical features
Australopithecus was man’s first bipedal ancestor. His legs and pelvis were more like modern man’s than ape’s. For example, his big toe was close to the other four toes, making his foot more suitable for working than grasping tree branches.
The various types of Australopithecus were of different builds, some tall and heavy, other light and slender. However they were hairy. The hair on the body served as protection against the cold and the rough environment. Australopithecines had an average brain capacity of 500 Cm3. They had bony brows and low foreheads. Their eyes were deep-set and had stereoscopic vision which enables accurate judging of distance. Their incisors were small and the molars had flat tops like those of a herbivore.
Way of life
The upright posture enables Australopithecus to see danger from a distance. It also freed his hands for defending himself, attacking enemies and holding objects.
At this stage, man was a scavenger and gatherer. He ate the remains of prey caught by carnivores as well as fruits, nuts and raw tubers.
Australopithecus evolved into Homo habilis.
Homo habilis
Homo means “man-like”. Homo habilis means “handy man” or “man with ability”. This name came from the fact that at this stage man could make and use tools.
Homo habilis emerged 2.5 to 1.5 million years ago. Fossils of Homo habilis were found in Olduvai Gorge in 1964 by Jonathan Leakey. Other remains have been found in Hadar and Omo river valley in Ethiopia and Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya.
Physical features
This man had a brain capacity 500Cm3 to 800Cm3. His skull had the same shape as that of modern man.
Homo habilis had a thumb like a modern man’s. it enables him to grip tools with precision. However, he was short disproportionately long arms compared to modern man. These arms made his appearance more ape-like than human.
The face was less protruding than his ancestor s’. Also, he had smaller molars and the thinner jaw.
Way of life
Homo habilis made the first crude tools from pebbles. Pebbles are small stones found in water or near water. These tools where produced by striking one stone against another. The tools were used as weapons, scrapers and choppers.
Homo habilis was omnivorous. This means that he ate both plants and animal flesh. He got his food by scavenging and gathering.
Homo habilis evolved into Homo erectus
Homo erectus
Homo erectus means “upright man”. The name comes from the fact that this man could walk on two legs with his back straight.
Homo erectus inhabited between two million and 200,000 years ago. Fossils have been found in Ismila near Iringa. Others have been dug up in Olorgesaille and near Lake Turkana in Kenya. Remain of Homo erectus have been found as far as Algeria, Morocco, South Africa, France, Spain, Hungary, India and china. The most famous Homo erectus skeleton is of young female, commonly called “Lucy”, that was found in Hadar, Ethiopia.
Physical features
Homo erectus could walk on two legs while upright. His height was about 5 feet and 6 inches.
He had a larger brain than Homo habilis, about 700cm3 to 1,250cm3. In addition, he was able to communicate through speech.
Ways of life
Homo erectus lived in groups of 30 or more. They hunted as a team. This man also made carefully chipped tools. These tools included spearheads for hunting and hand axe for cutting and scraping.
Homo erectus also discovered fire. This development changed man’s life greatly, enabling him to cook, work at night and warn himself on cold days. Homo erectus evolved into Homo erectus.
Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens mean “intelligent man” or “thinking man”. This man lived between 200,000 and 50,000 years ago. fossils have been found in Ngaloba in Tanzania; Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya; Omo River Valley and Bodo in Ethiopia; and various places in Europe and Asia.
Physical feature
Homo sapiens had a brain capacity of 1,000Cm3 to 1800Cm3. His brain and skull were very similar in shape to modern man’s. He had small teeth and a sharply receding forehead. This man was less than 6 feet tall and walked upright on long straight legs.
Way of life
At this time man lived by hunting, gathering and fishing. He also learnt how to domesticate plants and animals. Unlike his predecessors, he did not eat raw food. He used fire to cook.
Homo sapiens made tools from bone, wood and stone. These tools are called microliths because of their small size.
Homo sapiens lived in caves and were a painter. As this stage man also took care of the young and sick and performed ritual burials for the dead.
Homo sapiens evolved Homo sapiens sapiens.
Homo sapiens sapiens
Homo sapiens sapiens is the modern man. Homo sapiens is believed to have evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens 50,000 years ago.
This man has larger brain and greater intelligence. He is able to think about the past, plan for the future and discover things through research. For example modern man has invented many machines and found cures for many diseases.
THE STONE AGE
The Stone Age refers to the period of human development when most of man’s tools were made of stones. Man used stone tools for many things such as hunting, cutting, digging and cracking nuts.
The Stone Age is divided into three periods.
1. The early stone age or old stone age
2. The middle stone age
3. The late stone age or new stone age
The Early Stone Age
In East Africa, this stage lasted from around 1,500,000 BC to around 500,000 BC. The stages of evolution of man associated with this period are Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homo erectus.
Tools
The tools made during this period were simple, heavy and crude. Australopithecus and Homo habilis made tools from hand-sized pebbles and blocks of stone. Man used stones to strike off flakes (small pieces) from other stones in order to produce tools. The tools made in this manner were used for cutting and digging. These tools include chopper and the first hatchet. These tools are called oldowan tools because many remaining were discovered in Olduvai Gorge. Other remains were found in Kafu valley in Uganda, and near Lake Turkana in Kenya and in Omo river valley in Ethiopia.
Later, Homo erectus made tools called Acheulian tools. They got this name because Saint Acheulin France is the famous site where remains of these tools were discovered. Unlike Oldowan tools, Acheulian tools were made by large flakes in steady of block of rock. Acheulian tools included cleavers and hard axes. They were very used to cut, skin animals, dig cut branches and sharpen wood. Remains have also been found in Kariandusi, Olorgasaille, Kilombe, and Lewa Downs in Kenya.
Physical features of man
The three stages of man’s evolution associated with Old Stone Age are Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homo erectus.
Australopithecus was hairy, with large jaws and teeth. He had bony brow and no forehead. His brain capacity was 500 cm3. Australopithecus gradually evolved into Homo habilis
Homo habilis Had a larger brain (500cm3 to 800cm3) and the skull of the same shape as modern man‘s. he also had a less protruding face and smaller jaws and teeth compared to Australopithecus. Another major step was the increased distance between the thumb and the other fingers. This enabled man to have a better grip when making and using tools.
Homo habilis developed into Homo erectus, an even more intelligent creature. Homo erectus was the first human ancestor to walk upright. H had a brain capacity of 700cm3 to 1,250cm3 and could communicate through speech. The accomplishments of Homo erectus led to the beginning of the middle stone age.
How could man obtain food?
1. During this time, man hunted in small groups or bands. He used simple methods to catch animals for food. For example, he threw stones at animals or chased them until they caught them. Also animals could also be driven to swamps. When they got stuck they could be killed easily. The meat was eaten raw.
2. Man was also a scavenger. He at times ate the remains of prey killed by large carnivorous animals.
3. To supplement his diet, man gathered food such as roots, fruits and eggs from the environment.
The middle stone age
The middle stone age started around 500,000 BC and ended around 50,000 BC. This period is associated with Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.
Tools
During the Middle Stone Age man improved his tools by reducing their size. These tools are called Sangoan tools after Sango bay near Lake Victoria in Tanzania. This is because several of the tools were found in that area. These tools were sharper, smaller and easier to use than those from the Old Stone Age. Man used the cores of small stones to hit on big stones so that to make blades. Furthermore, he started using other materials such as wood and bones in making his tools.
Tools specialization began during this period. Man made tools such as spear, point, arrowheads, knives, daggers, choppers and scrapers. There were special tools for hunting, skinning animals, cutting meat, cutting wood, pound seeds and roots and cracking large stones. In addition, man developed tools with handles. An example is the tang found in North Africa. Scientist believe it was the first tool with handle.
Discovery of fire
Man could have discovered how kindle a fire after seeing sparks when stone struck another as he made stone tools. Ancient man lit fire by striking stones against each other or by rubbing a stick in a wooden grove.
Fire brought drastic changes in man’s life. It was used in the following ways.
1. Fire was used to scare away wild animals and thus keep man safe.
2. During the night, man used fire as source of light.
3. Fire provided warmth during cold nights and seasons, especially in the mountainous area.
4. Man used fire to cook his food. He cooked tough or poisonous roots and seeds to make them edible and also he roasted them. Therefore, man was able to include a larger variety of foods in his diet.
5. Fire also was used to fell trees and clean land. Making it easier for man to occupy new areas.
6. Fire was used to confine animal when man was hunting.
7. Some communities used fire to communicate. Fire or smoke signals were used to pass messages from one area to another.
8. Fire and smoke could be used to preserve food, for instance when drying meat.
9. Man used fire to harden the tips of tools such as spears, produce improved implements.
10. Later, man used fire to make gum soft. This gum was used to join tools to their handles.
11. When man discovered how to make pottery, he used fire to harden the clay items to make them durable.
Physical feature of man
Man had bigger brain than before (between1000cm3 and 1500cm3). His increased intelligence is what led to the many developments during his period. He had smaller teeth and well rounded forehead.
During the middle stone age, human beings became more concerned about their appearance. Man began to make skin from animal skins. They also applied red ochre and oil on their bodies to make themselves more attractive.
At this time, several families would live together to enhance security. The social groups were well organized and went hunting expeditions, together. These groups lived in rock shelters and caves. Animal skins were hung at the entrances to keep out the wind and rain. Examples of such caves are Gamble’s cave in Kenya and Matupi cave in the Democratic republic of Congo.
How man obtained food
The middle Stone Age man hunted in groups. These groups, armed with better tools could hunt large animals Such as elephants, rhinoceros and buffalo. The large carcasses were sufficient food for the entire group and their families. After discovering fire, man could cook his food.
During this period, man painted pictures of animals, especially the ones that served as food, on the walls of caves and on rocks. Such picture can still be seen in Kondoa and Singida in Tanzania and Apollo II caves in South Africa.
The Late or New Stone Age
The Late Stone Age in East Africa lasted from around 50,000 BC to the second millennium (around 1500 AD). This is associated with Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens sapiens.
Tools
During this period, man used better tools compared to those used previously. He made small sharp tools known as microliths. They were produced by grinding two stones against each other. The blades were produced this way could be glued to handles made of bone or ivory.
Examples of these tools were axes for cutting tools, barbed arrows and spears for hunting, sickles, saws, daggers and knives for cutting. A common microlith was the lunate or cresent. It had a straight cutting edge and curved blunt back.
Physical features of man
Man had smaller teeth than in the previous stages. These teeth were adapted to eating softer foods since man could now cook. He had a larger brain capacity compared to his ancestors (between 1,000cm3 and 1,800cm3) and the shape of his skull was similar to modern man’s. he walked upright on long straight legs and had less body hair than his ancestors.
Major changes in man’s life
1. Beginning of agriculture: the Late Stone Age man domesticated plants and animals. This was necessitated by various reasons, for example the scarcity of prey due to climatic changes and over-consumption of animals by humans. To ensure that he got a constant supply of meat, man began to tame the young of wild animals he hunted.
2. Creation of permanent settlement: agriculture required farmers to settle in one area for a long time in order to prepare the fields, plants, weed and harvest. Therefore man was forced to build simple house for his shelter. He used branches of grass to construct these dwellings. The walls of roof were decorated with animal paintings. Consequently, man began to live permanent settlements which developed into villages. This replaced the nomadic life in caves and rocks shelters.
3. Development of social and political organization: as the early villages grew, there was a need for leadership or authority to regulate activities. For example, there was a need for distributing farmland fairly to all villagers and settling disputes arising in villages. In this way, social and political ties developed, forming the basis for today’s civilized society. In addition, not every person was involved in agriculture. Therefore, some people could concentrate on leadership and religious activities.
4. High population growth: agricultural activities led to increased availability of food. This in turn resulted in a high population growth rate. Difficulties in obtaining sufficient and reliable food supplies had hindered rapid population growth in the previous period.
5. Specialization and labour and trade: specialization of labour is whereby different people do particular type of work. During the New Stone Age, specialization of labour was at two levels;
(a) At family level where men were breadwinners. This is to say that, they hunted or developed other occupation such as pastoralism or fishing in order to provide for their families. Women were responsible for taking care of the family, including all the domestic chores.
(b) At communal level where some New Stone Age people opted to remain hunters and gatherers while some became pastoralists or farmers. Others who lived near water bodies became fishermen.
This specialization of labour led to the development of a trade system. Trade helped to ensure that each group of people managed to meet their daily needs. For instance, toolmakers exchanged their items with the farmers in order to get grains for food and farmer acquired the tools which they needed for farming for farming activities.
6. Development of art and craft: in the Late Stone Age, man developed various types of art and craft. These included painting, pottery, weaving and carving. Cave painting were a way of expressing customs and beliefs. For instance, some paints are believed to have used during religious rituals. The items made by potters replaced stone and wooden utensils.
7. Religion: the development of agriculture made human beings more interested in natural phenomena such as season and weather changes. It also believed that people began to think about things such as life after death. These are some of the factors that led to development of religious practices. Proof of such practices has been found in Njoro River Cave and Hyrax Hill in Kenya. At Njoro River Cave, scientists found human remains baried with tools and seeds. This implies that people thought these things would be needed in the next life.
Summary of the Stone Age
Have you ever wondered where people, animals and no-living things in the world come from? Human beings have always tried to explain their origin. Different societies have different views on how they came to be.
There are two major theories that try to explain the origin of man. These are theory of creation and the theory of evolution. In this unit we will study theories on how man came to be, concentrating especially on the scientific theories of evolution.
Theory of creation
According to this theory, man was made by God. Jews, Christians and Muslims believe the creation stories told in the Torah, Bible and Quran, respectively. Many African societies also have creation stories passed on through oral traditions.
In this theory, God created the whole universe. This includes plants, animals, and non-living things. God created the first people. Those people reproduced and their descendants dispersed to all parts of the earth. Therefore, all the people in the world came from those first parents. God put human beings in charge of the rest of his creation.
Theory of evolution
Evolution is the gradual development of plants and animals from a simple form to a more complex form. It leads to the existence of plants and animals that are different from the original plants and animals. The theory of evolution tries to explain the origin of man by describing the changes that our ancestors underwent until they were like modern man
The theory of evolution was introduced by the scientist called Charles Darwin. His work was based on his observation of living organisms and remaining of living organism in South America and the Pacific islands. In 1859, Darwin wrote a book called the origin of species. In this book, he said that the plants and animals that exist today evolved from simple living cells. This process occurred in many stages and took million of years.
The following are the important points of the theory:
1. The rate at which organisms reproduce can increase their number more than twice within each generation. For example, two parents can have more than ten young ones.
2. The total number of wild organisms remains constant.
3. There must be something that limits the number of wild organisms. This is called struggle for survival. There are many organisms competing for a few resources such as food, so many of the young organisms die before they can reproduce. This is called natural selection.
4. There are variations or differences in each group of organisms. For example, there are tall and short people, and there are black, white and brown cattle.
5. Young organisms inherit some features or characteristics from their parents.
6. Adaptations enable organism to survive and reproduce. Lack of these adaptations causes an organism to die early. This is called survival for the fittest.
7. Through inheritance, adaptations are passed on from the parents to their offspring.
8. After a long time, the organisms that are different from the original ones are seen due to natural selection and inheritance.
This theory is greatly supported by scientists. The use of fossils to prove that evolution took place. Fossils are remains of living things from long ago.
Fossils of man’s ancestors have been found in many places. Some of the sites in East Africa are
· Olduvai Gorge, Kondoa, Ismila and the shores of Lake Eyasi in Tanzania.
· Olorgesaille, Rusinga Island, Fort Ternan and Kariandusi in Kenya.
· Nsongezi, Paraa, Ishanga, Lolui, Ntusi and Bigo in Uganda.
Evolution of man
According to the scientists, the first living thing appeared on the earth hundreds of millions years ago. These organisms were single-celled microscopic organisms that lived in water.
These organisms evolved into the early fish and amphibians. These creatures lived in water. At that time, water bodies were bigger than they are now, so more of the earth was covered by water.
Due to climatic changes, the water bodies began to dry up and reduce in size. Many of the organisms died. Some of those remained adapted to living on land. They were the early reptiles. Dinosaurs evolved from these reptiles. Scientist believed that mammals, including man, evolved from small reptiles.
The early mammals lived in trees. At that time there were many large forests. The mammals easily got food such as fruits, honey, eggs, leaves and insects in the forests. The forests also provided protection from some of their enemies. These mammals used their four limbs and tails to hold branches and move in the trees.
Further climatic changes led to the reduction of the forests and the increase of grassland. As a result, mammals had to evolve in order to survive in the new environment. For example, man’s ancestor no longer had tails because they were unnecessary in the grassland. Also, they began to walk on two legs is called bipedalism. This mode of movement made it easier to see over the tall grass. In addition, the arms were free to be used for defense, making tools and hunting. An upright position helped to cool the body as well because less of the body surfaces were exposed to the sun.
Fossil evidence show that
1. The skulls of man’s ancestors gradually became bigger until they reached their current size. This indicates that their brains became bigger and they became more intelligent.
2. The jaws and teeth changed in shape and size. Early man had large jaws and teeth for tearing and cutting roots and tough fibers. These teeth were also used as weapons against enemies.
3. Man’s forearms and hands became shorter and more suitable for his upright posture. His thumb changed as well. It became stronger and more separated from the other four fingers.
4. Man’s feet and toes became shorter, because he did not need them to hold onto tree branches. Also the shape of his feet changed in order to maintain body balance when standing or moving.
Man is believed to have undergone the following stages during evolution. Scientists use fossils from various sites to explain what man’s ancestor were like at each stage.
Australopithecus
The word Australopithecus means “southern ape-man”. Australopithecus is believed to have lived around four million years ago. Fossils have been found in Olduvai Gorge, Laetoli and near Lake Natron in Tanzania; near lake Baringo and Turkana in Kenya; Omo river valley and Hadar in Ethiopia; and Taung in Botswana.
Several Australopithecus have been discovered, including Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus afarensis, Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus robustus and Australopithecus boisei.
Physical features
Australopithecus was man’s first bipedal ancestor. His legs and pelvis were more like modern man’s than ape’s. For example, his big toe was close to the other four toes, making his foot more suitable for working than grasping tree branches.
The various types of Australopithecus were of different builds, some tall and heavy, other light and slender. However they were hairy. The hair on the body served as protection against the cold and the rough environment. Australopithecines had an average brain capacity of 500 Cm3. They had bony brows and low foreheads. Their eyes were deep-set and had stereoscopic vision which enables accurate judging of distance. Their incisors were small and the molars had flat tops like those of a herbivore.
Way of life
The upright posture enables Australopithecus to see danger from a distance. It also freed his hands for defending himself, attacking enemies and holding objects.
At this stage, man was a scavenger and gatherer. He ate the remains of prey caught by carnivores as well as fruits, nuts and raw tubers.
Australopithecus evolved into Homo habilis.
Homo habilis
Homo means “man-like”. Homo habilis means “handy man” or “man with ability”. This name came from the fact that at this stage man could make and use tools.
Homo habilis emerged 2.5 to 1.5 million years ago. Fossils of Homo habilis were found in Olduvai Gorge in 1964 by Jonathan Leakey. Other remains have been found in Hadar and Omo river valley in Ethiopia and Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya.
Physical features
This man had a brain capacity 500Cm3 to 800Cm3. His skull had the same shape as that of modern man.
Homo habilis had a thumb like a modern man’s. it enables him to grip tools with precision. However, he was short disproportionately long arms compared to modern man. These arms made his appearance more ape-like than human.
The face was less protruding than his ancestor s’. Also, he had smaller molars and the thinner jaw.
Way of life
Homo habilis made the first crude tools from pebbles. Pebbles are small stones found in water or near water. These tools where produced by striking one stone against another. The tools were used as weapons, scrapers and choppers.
Homo habilis was omnivorous. This means that he ate both plants and animal flesh. He got his food by scavenging and gathering.
Homo habilis evolved into Homo erectus
Homo erectus
Homo erectus means “upright man”. The name comes from the fact that this man could walk on two legs with his back straight.
Homo erectus inhabited between two million and 200,000 years ago. Fossils have been found in Ismila near Iringa. Others have been dug up in Olorgesaille and near Lake Turkana in Kenya. Remain of Homo erectus have been found as far as Algeria, Morocco, South Africa, France, Spain, Hungary, India and china. The most famous Homo erectus skeleton is of young female, commonly called “Lucy”, that was found in Hadar, Ethiopia.
Physical features
Homo erectus could walk on two legs while upright. His height was about 5 feet and 6 inches.
He had a larger brain than Homo habilis, about 700cm3 to 1,250cm3. In addition, he was able to communicate through speech.
Ways of life
Homo erectus lived in groups of 30 or more. They hunted as a team. This man also made carefully chipped tools. These tools included spearheads for hunting and hand axe for cutting and scraping.
Homo erectus also discovered fire. This development changed man’s life greatly, enabling him to cook, work at night and warn himself on cold days. Homo erectus evolved into Homo erectus.
Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens mean “intelligent man” or “thinking man”. This man lived between 200,000 and 50,000 years ago. fossils have been found in Ngaloba in Tanzania; Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya; Omo River Valley and Bodo in Ethiopia; and various places in Europe and Asia.
Physical feature
Homo sapiens had a brain capacity of 1,000Cm3 to 1800Cm3. His brain and skull were very similar in shape to modern man’s. He had small teeth and a sharply receding forehead. This man was less than 6 feet tall and walked upright on long straight legs.
Way of life
At this time man lived by hunting, gathering and fishing. He also learnt how to domesticate plants and animals. Unlike his predecessors, he did not eat raw food. He used fire to cook.
Homo sapiens made tools from bone, wood and stone. These tools are called microliths because of their small size.
Homo sapiens lived in caves and were a painter. As this stage man also took care of the young and sick and performed ritual burials for the dead.
Homo sapiens evolved Homo sapiens sapiens.
Homo sapiens sapiens
Homo sapiens sapiens is the modern man. Homo sapiens is believed to have evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens 50,000 years ago.
This man has larger brain and greater intelligence. He is able to think about the past, plan for the future and discover things through research. For example modern man has invented many machines and found cures for many diseases.
THE STONE AGE
The Stone Age refers to the period of human development when most of man’s tools were made of stones. Man used stone tools for many things such as hunting, cutting, digging and cracking nuts.
The Stone Age is divided into three periods.
1. The early stone age or old stone age
2. The middle stone age
3. The late stone age or new stone age
The Early Stone Age
In East Africa, this stage lasted from around 1,500,000 BC to around 500,000 BC. The stages of evolution of man associated with this period are Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homo erectus.
Tools
The tools made during this period were simple, heavy and crude. Australopithecus and Homo habilis made tools from hand-sized pebbles and blocks of stone. Man used stones to strike off flakes (small pieces) from other stones in order to produce tools. The tools made in this manner were used for cutting and digging. These tools include chopper and the first hatchet. These tools are called oldowan tools because many remaining were discovered in Olduvai Gorge. Other remains were found in Kafu valley in Uganda, and near Lake Turkana in Kenya and in Omo river valley in Ethiopia.
Later, Homo erectus made tools called Acheulian tools. They got this name because Saint Acheulin France is the famous site where remains of these tools were discovered. Unlike Oldowan tools, Acheulian tools were made by large flakes in steady of block of rock. Acheulian tools included cleavers and hard axes. They were very used to cut, skin animals, dig cut branches and sharpen wood. Remains have also been found in Kariandusi, Olorgasaille, Kilombe, and Lewa Downs in Kenya.
Physical features of man
The three stages of man’s evolution associated with Old Stone Age are Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homo erectus.
Australopithecus was hairy, with large jaws and teeth. He had bony brow and no forehead. His brain capacity was 500 cm3. Australopithecus gradually evolved into Homo habilis
Homo habilis Had a larger brain (500cm3 to 800cm3) and the skull of the same shape as modern man‘s. he also had a less protruding face and smaller jaws and teeth compared to Australopithecus. Another major step was the increased distance between the thumb and the other fingers. This enabled man to have a better grip when making and using tools.
Homo habilis developed into Homo erectus, an even more intelligent creature. Homo erectus was the first human ancestor to walk upright. H had a brain capacity of 700cm3 to 1,250cm3 and could communicate through speech. The accomplishments of Homo erectus led to the beginning of the middle stone age.
How could man obtain food?
1. During this time, man hunted in small groups or bands. He used simple methods to catch animals for food. For example, he threw stones at animals or chased them until they caught them. Also animals could also be driven to swamps. When they got stuck they could be killed easily. The meat was eaten raw.
2. Man was also a scavenger. He at times ate the remains of prey killed by large carnivorous animals.
3. To supplement his diet, man gathered food such as roots, fruits and eggs from the environment.
The middle stone age
The middle stone age started around 500,000 BC and ended around 50,000 BC. This period is associated with Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.
Tools
During the Middle Stone Age man improved his tools by reducing their size. These tools are called Sangoan tools after Sango bay near Lake Victoria in Tanzania. This is because several of the tools were found in that area. These tools were sharper, smaller and easier to use than those from the Old Stone Age. Man used the cores of small stones to hit on big stones so that to make blades. Furthermore, he started using other materials such as wood and bones in making his tools.
Tools specialization began during this period. Man made tools such as spear, point, arrowheads, knives, daggers, choppers and scrapers. There were special tools for hunting, skinning animals, cutting meat, cutting wood, pound seeds and roots and cracking large stones. In addition, man developed tools with handles. An example is the tang found in North Africa. Scientist believe it was the first tool with handle.
Discovery of fire
Man could have discovered how kindle a fire after seeing sparks when stone struck another as he made stone tools. Ancient man lit fire by striking stones against each other or by rubbing a stick in a wooden grove.
Fire brought drastic changes in man’s life. It was used in the following ways.
1. Fire was used to scare away wild animals and thus keep man safe.
2. During the night, man used fire as source of light.
3. Fire provided warmth during cold nights and seasons, especially in the mountainous area.
4. Man used fire to cook his food. He cooked tough or poisonous roots and seeds to make them edible and also he roasted them. Therefore, man was able to include a larger variety of foods in his diet.
5. Fire also was used to fell trees and clean land. Making it easier for man to occupy new areas.
6. Fire was used to confine animal when man was hunting.
7. Some communities used fire to communicate. Fire or smoke signals were used to pass messages from one area to another.
8. Fire and smoke could be used to preserve food, for instance when drying meat.
9. Man used fire to harden the tips of tools such as spears, produce improved implements.
10. Later, man used fire to make gum soft. This gum was used to join tools to their handles.
11. When man discovered how to make pottery, he used fire to harden the clay items to make them durable.
Physical feature of man
Man had bigger brain than before (between1000cm3 and 1500cm3). His increased intelligence is what led to the many developments during his period. He had smaller teeth and well rounded forehead.
During the middle stone age, human beings became more concerned about their appearance. Man began to make skin from animal skins. They also applied red ochre and oil on their bodies to make themselves more attractive.
At this time, several families would live together to enhance security. The social groups were well organized and went hunting expeditions, together. These groups lived in rock shelters and caves. Animal skins were hung at the entrances to keep out the wind and rain. Examples of such caves are Gamble’s cave in Kenya and Matupi cave in the Democratic republic of Congo.
How man obtained food
The middle Stone Age man hunted in groups. These groups, armed with better tools could hunt large animals Such as elephants, rhinoceros and buffalo. The large carcasses were sufficient food for the entire group and their families. After discovering fire, man could cook his food.
During this period, man painted pictures of animals, especially the ones that served as food, on the walls of caves and on rocks. Such picture can still be seen in Kondoa and Singida in Tanzania and Apollo II caves in South Africa.
The Late or New Stone Age
The Late Stone Age in East Africa lasted from around 50,000 BC to the second millennium (around 1500 AD). This is associated with Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens sapiens.
Tools
During this period, man used better tools compared to those used previously. He made small sharp tools known as microliths. They were produced by grinding two stones against each other. The blades were produced this way could be glued to handles made of bone or ivory.
Examples of these tools were axes for cutting tools, barbed arrows and spears for hunting, sickles, saws, daggers and knives for cutting. A common microlith was the lunate or cresent. It had a straight cutting edge and curved blunt back.
Physical features of man
Man had smaller teeth than in the previous stages. These teeth were adapted to eating softer foods since man could now cook. He had a larger brain capacity compared to his ancestors (between 1,000cm3 and 1,800cm3) and the shape of his skull was similar to modern man’s. he walked upright on long straight legs and had less body hair than his ancestors.
Major changes in man’s life
1. Beginning of agriculture: the Late Stone Age man domesticated plants and animals. This was necessitated by various reasons, for example the scarcity of prey due to climatic changes and over-consumption of animals by humans. To ensure that he got a constant supply of meat, man began to tame the young of wild animals he hunted.
2. Creation of permanent settlement: agriculture required farmers to settle in one area for a long time in order to prepare the fields, plants, weed and harvest. Therefore man was forced to build simple house for his shelter. He used branches of grass to construct these dwellings. The walls of roof were decorated with animal paintings. Consequently, man began to live permanent settlements which developed into villages. This replaced the nomadic life in caves and rocks shelters.
3. Development of social and political organization: as the early villages grew, there was a need for leadership or authority to regulate activities. For example, there was a need for distributing farmland fairly to all villagers and settling disputes arising in villages. In this way, social and political ties developed, forming the basis for today’s civilized society. In addition, not every person was involved in agriculture. Therefore, some people could concentrate on leadership and religious activities.
4. High population growth: agricultural activities led to increased availability of food. This in turn resulted in a high population growth rate. Difficulties in obtaining sufficient and reliable food supplies had hindered rapid population growth in the previous period.
5. Specialization and labour and trade: specialization of labour is whereby different people do particular type of work. During the New Stone Age, specialization of labour was at two levels;
(a) At family level where men were breadwinners. This is to say that, they hunted or developed other occupation such as pastoralism or fishing in order to provide for their families. Women were responsible for taking care of the family, including all the domestic chores.
(b) At communal level where some New Stone Age people opted to remain hunters and gatherers while some became pastoralists or farmers. Others who lived near water bodies became fishermen.
This specialization of labour led to the development of a trade system. Trade helped to ensure that each group of people managed to meet their daily needs. For instance, toolmakers exchanged their items with the farmers in order to get grains for food and farmer acquired the tools which they needed for farming for farming activities.
6. Development of art and craft: in the Late Stone Age, man developed various types of art and craft. These included painting, pottery, weaving and carving. Cave painting were a way of expressing customs and beliefs. For instance, some paints are believed to have used during religious rituals. The items made by potters replaced stone and wooden utensils.
7. Religion: the development of agriculture made human beings more interested in natural phenomena such as season and weather changes. It also believed that people began to think about things such as life after death. These are some of the factors that led to development of religious practices. Proof of such practices has been found in Njoro River Cave and Hyrax Hill in Kenya. At Njoro River Cave, scientists found human remains baried with tools and seeds. This implies that people thought these things would be needed in the next life.
Summary of the Stone Age
THE IRON AGE
It is not clear how ancient man discovered iron. This is because iron only occurs iron ore which looks like ordinary rock. Hence using naked eyes, it is difficult to differentiate between rock containing iron and those that do not. In addition, very high temperatures are needed to smelt iron ore so as to produce iron.
Two theories are used by historians to explain the discovery of iron.
1. Mistaken identity: before people discovered iron, copper was commonly used. In this theory, iron was discovered when man mistakenly mined iron ore instead of copper ore.
2. Forest fire theory: according to this theory, forest fire melted iron ore that was on the earth’s surface. This left lumps of iron on the ground.
The Hittites who lived in modern day Turkey were some of the earliest people to smelt and use iron. It is believed that they were practicing ironworking as early as 1500 BC. Their skills spread to the Persians who in turn introduced the art to the North Africa. Some historians also believed that Africans could have discovered iron by themselves.
Among the first Africans to use iron were the Nok who lived in the present day Nigeria. They are believed to have smelted iron as early as 1000 BC.
The Bantu people helped to spread the art of ironworking as they migrated. The Bantu originally came from the region around the modern-day Cameroon-Nigeria border. They then moved to settle in various parts of East, Central, and South Africa as they moved, they taught their iron smelting skills to the communities they interacted with.
Iron technology is associated with the simple-based pottery practiced by the Bantu. Remains of such pots have been found in the coastal area of East Africa. The pots are called Kwale-ware. Others, found in Buhaya in Tanzania are called Urewe-ware. Based on these discoveries, scientists believe that Africans could have got the idea of iron smelting from their experience in firing pots.
Iron was used to make tools and weapons. Examples of iron item made by traditional Africans communities are machetes (panga), daggers, arrowheads, spears, axes, hoes and swords.
Major iron centres in Africa included Meroe (the Birmingham of Africa) in Western Sudan, the area around Lake Chad, Carthage, Tunisia, Taruga in Nigeria, Engaruka on the Kenya-Tanzania border Buhaya in north western Tanzania. There were smaller iron centres in Uvinza, Karagwe and Ugweno, all in Tanzania.
Advantage of iron tools
(a) The use of iron tools contributed greatly to the improvement of agriculture. Man could clear large forest areas for agriculture using iron axes and hoes. Therefore, there was more land under cultivation and increased food production.
(b) Increased food supplies led to an increase in population. This in turn caused overpopulation in some areas and led to the migration.
(c) The use of iron weapons and tools made it easier for communities to migrate.
This is because they had better means of protecting themselves and more efficient means of clearing new land of settlement.
(d) Iron technology stimulated trade between communities. Iron very important and demand for iron ore and iron tools was high. Communities that had no iron got it through trade. The surplus agricultural produce as a result of the use of iron tools was also traded.
(e) Certain areas became centres for smelting, working and trading in iron. These centres developed into urban areas which were centres of political administration and trade. Examples are Meroe, Cairo, Tunis and Axum.
(f) Ironworking encouraged division of labour. Blacksmiths specialized in making iron tools while other people were involved in activities such as crafts, farming or fishing. This way, everyone did what they were best suited to do, leading to more efficient production.
(g) Iron weapons gave military strength to the communities that had them. These communities were able to conquer weaker states. Powerful states such as ancient Ghana, Kush, Nubia, Rozwi, and Buganda grew in this way.
Chapter summary
The origin of man can be explained using the creation theory or theory of evolution. According to the creation theory, man was created by God. Evolution show how human race developed through various stages, from ape-like ancestors.
Man’s ancestor underwent various periods of life, marked by the dominant use of certain material such as stone (the Stone Age) and Iron (the Iron Age).
Early man first learnt to make tools from stone. This led to the beginning of the Stone Age. It is divided into three major periods; the Early or Old Stone Age, the Middle Stone Age, the Late or New Stone Age.
During the Early Stone Age, technology was simple. Man used stones and pebbles to make simple hand axes used for killing animals, digging up roots, cutting meat and defense. Physically, man at this stage was more or less the same as an ape. He was a hunter and gatherer and depended on nature for his survival.
In Middle Stone Age, man improved his tools by making them sharper. He also used other material such as woods and bones to enhance the efficiency of his tools. The greatest technological at this stage was that of fire. With fire, man warmed himself, cooked his food, cleared bushes and frightened wild animals.
During the Late Stone Age, man made smaller and lighter tools, developed permanent settlements and discovered agriculture.
Later, man discovered iron. This led to the Iron Age when iron was the most commonly used material for making tools and weapons. The use of iron greatly improved man’s life. There was increased food production, the population increased, urban centres came up and kingdoms were enlarged due to the use of more efficient implements.
It is not clear how ancient man discovered iron. This is because iron only occurs iron ore which looks like ordinary rock. Hence using naked eyes, it is difficult to differentiate between rock containing iron and those that do not. In addition, very high temperatures are needed to smelt iron ore so as to produce iron.
Two theories are used by historians to explain the discovery of iron.
1. Mistaken identity: before people discovered iron, copper was commonly used. In this theory, iron was discovered when man mistakenly mined iron ore instead of copper ore.
2. Forest fire theory: according to this theory, forest fire melted iron ore that was on the earth’s surface. This left lumps of iron on the ground.
The Hittites who lived in modern day Turkey were some of the earliest people to smelt and use iron. It is believed that they were practicing ironworking as early as 1500 BC. Their skills spread to the Persians who in turn introduced the art to the North Africa. Some historians also believed that Africans could have discovered iron by themselves.
Among the first Africans to use iron were the Nok who lived in the present day Nigeria. They are believed to have smelted iron as early as 1000 BC.
The Bantu people helped to spread the art of ironworking as they migrated. The Bantu originally came from the region around the modern-day Cameroon-Nigeria border. They then moved to settle in various parts of East, Central, and South Africa as they moved, they taught their iron smelting skills to the communities they interacted with.
Iron technology is associated with the simple-based pottery practiced by the Bantu. Remains of such pots have been found in the coastal area of East Africa. The pots are called Kwale-ware. Others, found in Buhaya in Tanzania are called Urewe-ware. Based on these discoveries, scientists believe that Africans could have got the idea of iron smelting from their experience in firing pots.
Iron was used to make tools and weapons. Examples of iron item made by traditional Africans communities are machetes (panga), daggers, arrowheads, spears, axes, hoes and swords.
Major iron centres in Africa included Meroe (the Birmingham of Africa) in Western Sudan, the area around Lake Chad, Carthage, Tunisia, Taruga in Nigeria, Engaruka on the Kenya-Tanzania border Buhaya in north western Tanzania. There were smaller iron centres in Uvinza, Karagwe and Ugweno, all in Tanzania.
Advantage of iron tools
(a) The use of iron tools contributed greatly to the improvement of agriculture. Man could clear large forest areas for agriculture using iron axes and hoes. Therefore, there was more land under cultivation and increased food production.
(b) Increased food supplies led to an increase in population. This in turn caused overpopulation in some areas and led to the migration.
(c) The use of iron weapons and tools made it easier for communities to migrate.
This is because they had better means of protecting themselves and more efficient means of clearing new land of settlement.
(d) Iron technology stimulated trade between communities. Iron very important and demand for iron ore and iron tools was high. Communities that had no iron got it through trade. The surplus agricultural produce as a result of the use of iron tools was also traded.
(e) Certain areas became centres for smelting, working and trading in iron. These centres developed into urban areas which were centres of political administration and trade. Examples are Meroe, Cairo, Tunis and Axum.
(f) Ironworking encouraged division of labour. Blacksmiths specialized in making iron tools while other people were involved in activities such as crafts, farming or fishing. This way, everyone did what they were best suited to do, leading to more efficient production.
(g) Iron weapons gave military strength to the communities that had them. These communities were able to conquer weaker states. Powerful states such as ancient Ghana, Kush, Nubia, Rozwi, and Buganda grew in this way.
Chapter summary
The origin of man can be explained using the creation theory or theory of evolution. According to the creation theory, man was created by God. Evolution show how human race developed through various stages, from ape-like ancestors.
Man’s ancestor underwent various periods of life, marked by the dominant use of certain material such as stone (the Stone Age) and Iron (the Iron Age).
Early man first learnt to make tools from stone. This led to the beginning of the Stone Age. It is divided into three major periods; the Early or Old Stone Age, the Middle Stone Age, the Late or New Stone Age.
During the Early Stone Age, technology was simple. Man used stones and pebbles to make simple hand axes used for killing animals, digging up roots, cutting meat and defense. Physically, man at this stage was more or less the same as an ape. He was a hunter and gatherer and depended on nature for his survival.
In Middle Stone Age, man improved his tools by making them sharper. He also used other material such as woods and bones to enhance the efficiency of his tools. The greatest technological at this stage was that of fire. With fire, man warmed himself, cooked his food, cleared bushes and frightened wild animals.
During the Late Stone Age, man made smaller and lighter tools, developed permanent settlements and discovered agriculture.
Later, man discovered iron. This led to the Iron Age when iron was the most commonly used material for making tools and weapons. The use of iron greatly improved man’s life. There was increased food production, the population increased, urban centres came up and kingdoms were enlarged due to the use of more efficient implements.
© Flourish Investment Firm, Tanzania education, History notes form one (O-level), 2013. Teacher: Ustadh Shaaban